Nature and meaning of science

Correct answer: B. A shared systematic error may affect all results

The same instrument defect can create similar systematic error across independent groups. Look for shared methodological weaknesses.

Correct answer: B. Overgeneralisation

Applying a finding from a limited sample to all humans goes beyond the evidence. Match the population with the sample.

Correct answer: A. A clear condition should be stated under which the claim would be unsupported

A test is meaningful only if some outcomes can count against the claim. Look for falsifiable criteria.

Correct answer: B. Informed consent requires relevant information to be provided

Valid consent requires appropriate information about purpose risks and rights. Identify informed consent.

Correct answer: B. Disclose the conflict of interest and seek independent review

A conflict of interest does not automatically make a result false but requires transparency and independent checking. Evaluate it carefully.

Correct answer: B. Generalisation to all age groups

Repetition within one group does not guarantee application to other groups. Distinguish reliability from generalisation.

Correct answer: B. Review replication and new evidence can identify and correct errors

Science is not error-free but collective checking increases the chance of correction. Distinguish the process from individuals.

Correct answer: B. The presentation may cause misleading interpretation of correct data

Correct data can still appear misleading through an inappropriate scale. Examine both graph design and data.

Correct answer: A. Whether the studies and methods are sufficiently comparable

Combining highly different studies may produce a misleading average. Check comparability before combining results.

Correct answer: A. Absence of contrary evidence is not automatically evidence for the claim

A claim requires positive and appropriate support. Distinguish lack of evidence from evidence of absence.

Correct answer: A. Consistency and validity of measurement were weakened

Changing measurement criteria means results from different stages may not have the same meaning. Keep operational definitions stable.

Correct answer: A. Subgroups or unusual variation in the data

The direct answer is A: subgroups or unusual variation in the data may remain unnoticed. An average is one summary number, found by adding values and dividing by their number, but it does not show every individual value. For example, two groups can have the same average even when one group has low values and the other has high values. Step by step: inspect the individual observations; look for clusters, extreme values, spread, or unequal subgroups; then compare these patterns with the average. Option A is correct because hiding the raw values can conceal important variation or separate groups. Option B is wrong because the topic is normally stated separately and is not hidden by averaging. Option C is wrong because the instrument's name is a method detail, not a pattern in the data. Option D is wrong because a signature has no role in interpreting numerical results. Exam cue: never treat an average as the whole distribution.

Correct answer: B. Testability is required along with explanatory power

The direct answer is B: testability is required along with explanatory power. A useful scientific theory should explain a wide range of observations, but it must also lead to claims that evidence can examine. The reasoning is: broad explanation gives the theory usefulness; a testable prediction allows observation or experiment; evidence can then support, modify, or reject the theory. Option A is wrong because broadness alone cannot show that an explanation is correct. Option B is correct because scientific evaluation needs both scope and the possibility of testing. Option C is wrong because difficulty does not make a theory true; a difficult test may simply require better methods or may reveal problems. Option D is wrong because scientific ideas are not accepted merely on assertion or authority; they need evidence and critical checking. Testability does not mean that every test is easy, only that the claim can in principle be compared with observations. Memory cue: a strong scientific idea should explain much and risk being checked.

Correct answer: B. Check whether removal follows a predefined scientific reason

Data should not be removed arbitrarily after seeing results. Look for transparent predefined exclusion criteria.

Correct answer: A. Expert selection bias

Selecting only supportive experts creates a biased picture of available views. Look for balanced expert selection.

Correct answer: B. Compare the quality methods and completeness of the data

In conflicting claims the quality and method of evidence matter more than quantity alone. Apply source evaluation.

Correct answer: A. The result may depend on selective analysis choices

Selecting a favourable analysis from many options can make a result unstable. Check robustness across reasonable analyses.

Correct answer: A. Initial differences may influence the final outcome

Pre-existing differences between groups may be confused with the treatment effect. Check baseline similarity.

Correct answer: B. The model may be useful but omitted assumptions and limitations must be examined

A simple model may reveal key relationships but its limits should be clear. Examine its assumptions.

Correct answer: A. An incomplete or flawed claim may spread quickly

Publicity before review may make an uncertain finding appear established. Distinguish preliminary from verified conclusions.

Correct answer: A. The evidence suggests the possibility of the result

Scientific wording should match the strength and limits of the evidence. Identify cautious language.

Correct answer: B. No because no new independent data were collected

Reanalysis of the same data may be useful but independent reproduction requires new data. Distinguish reanalysis from replication.

Correct answer: B. Factual conclusions and value-based decisions may be distinct but related

Science can describe outcomes and effects but deciding proper use also involves values. Distinguish facts from values.

Correct answer: A. Because science includes processes of questioning testing criticism and revision along with knowledge

Science is both a product and a method of building knowledge. Understand it as process and knowledge.

Correct answer: B. A systematic and collective knowledge endeavour developed through evidence reasoning imagination testing review and revision

Science is evidence-based while also being creative social and revisable. Recognise all these dimensions.