The Age of Social Change

Conservatives generally believed that society should change gradually and carefully, while preserving useful institutions and respecting lessons from the past. Their governing principle was not that every old practice was perfect, but that sudden revolutions could destroy social stability and produce unpredictable consequences. Therefore, option A is correct. Conservatives could accept some reforms when those reforms strengthened order or corrected serious problems, but they preferred controlled adaptation rather than complete and immediate transformation. Option B describes revolutionary suddenness, option C rejects the order and authority conservatives valued, and option D is too absolute because conservatives did not define all change as requiring war. The key distinction is gradual reform versus abrupt revolution.

In industrial society workers worked in difficult conditions. Exam tip: remember working hours and wages.

Women and children also worked in factories under hard conditions. Exam tip: remember the wide nature of industrial labour.

Industrial Revolution increased workers' difficulties. Exam tip: connect industrial society with workers' problems.

Socialists saw private property as a cause of inequality. Exam tip: connect private property with inequality.

Socialists wanted cooperation and collective welfare in society. Exam tip: connect socialism with collectivity.

Owen tried to build a cooperative community named New Harmony in America. Exam tip: remember both name and idea.

Louis Blanc wanted the government to set up or encourage cooperatives. Exam tip: connect Blanc with state-supported cooperatives.

Cooperatives were based on cooperation and shared benefit. Exam tip: remember the link between cooperatives and socialism.

Marx and Engels were major thinkers of socialist ideas. Exam tip: connect both names with socialism.

Marx explained capitalist society through the idea of class struggle. The main conflict was between the bourgeoisie, who owned factories, land, machines, and other means of production, and the proletariat, who had to sell their labour to earn wages. Capitalists sought profit, while workers often faced long hours, low wages, insecurity, and poor working conditions. Therefore, option A is correct. Option B describes a political or religious relationship, not the central economic conflict identified by Marx. Options C and D are unrelated comparisons and do not represent the class divisions created by capitalism. The key concept is ownership versus wage labour.

According to Marx capitalists profited from workers' labour. Exam tip: remember capitalist-worker relation.

Problems of industrial society made socialism attractive. Exam tip: connect workers' problems with socialism.

Workers' associations were collective organisations created to protect labourers from exploitation and to improve their bargaining power. During industrialisation, individual workers usually had little influence over employers, so they joined together to demand better wages, shorter or more reasonable working hours, safer workplaces, and greater job security. They could also support members during illness, unemployment, or disputes. Thus, option A correctly states their main purpose. Option B concerns royal authority, while option C relates to feudal revenue collection. Option D refers to a political gathering of nobles, not a working-class organisation. The governing concept is collective action for workers' rights.

Socialist parties talked about workers' rights and equality. Exam tip: connect socialism with working class.

The Second International linked socialist and workers' organisations. Exam tip: remember it as an international socialist organisation.

Both opposed old privileges but their democratic ideas differed. Exam tip: remember both similarity and difference.

Radicals supported majority-based government and wider rights. Exam tip: remember the difference in suffrage.

Conservatives valued traditions, established institutions, and the lessons of the past. They generally supported gradual change rather than sudden, sweeping reforms. Therefore, they believed that the past should be respected. The idea of completely abolishing the past is the opposite of conservative thought. Exam tip: remember conservatism through tradition, stability, and gradual change.

In industrial society unemployment rose during downturns. Exam tip: connect industrial problems with unemployment.