What was the biggest local cost of forest transformation in Java?

Correct answer: Decline in traditional access to forest resources and freedom of labour

In Java, Dutch colonial forest policy increased state control over valuable timber, especially teak. Villagers lost customary access to wood, grazing and other forest produce, and many were compelled to work for the forest department under controlled conditions. Therefore, option A states the major local cost. Option D is incorrect because the Dutch expanded, rather than abandoned, control over teak. Exam tip: For colonial forestry, remember both loss of forest rights and controlled or forced labour.