Development and uses of writing

Ashoka’s inscriptions are primary historical sources because they were issued during his reign and record his messages, administrative concerns and idea of Dhamma. They were engraved on rocks and pillars in several languages and scripts, so they are not modern newspapers, fictional stories or wholly unintelligible records. Therefore, option A is correct.

Epigraphy is the systematic study of inscriptions engraved or written on durable materials such as stone, metal, pottery or walls. It examines their script, language, date, content and historical context. Numismatics instead studies coins, while geography and biology concern different fields. Thus, the technical term for studying inscriptions is epigraphy, making option A correct.

Devanampriya, meaning “beloved of the gods,” is a title used by Ashoka in his inscriptions, often alongside Priyadarshi or Piyadassi. These titles helped historians identify the ruler referred to in the edicts. Samudragupta, Harsha and Kanishka belong to different historical contexts and are not the rulers meant here. Hence, option A is correct.

The Puranas are religious and literary texts that preserve genealogies, legends, traditions and accounts associated with places and ruling lineages. Historians use them carefully because their narratives may combine memory, belief and later additions. They cannot provide modern election results or only weather and industrial data, so A is best.

Indus seals, often made of stone and bearing animals or signs, may have marked goods, property or commercial identity. Their exact uses are not fully certain because the script remains undeciphered, but trade and identification are widely considered relevant functions. They were not cooking tools or simply military practice objects.

The Rigveda is a collection of hymns, or sukta, composed in praise of various deities and used in ritual contexts. Its verses address figures such as Agni, Indra and Soma, among others. It is therefore different in form from royal orders, dramatic scripts or travel narratives. The description in option A best identifies the main content of the Rigveda.

The Samaveda arranges many verses for musical recitation, especially during Vedic rituals. Its significance lies in the melodies and chants used by ritual specialists, not in revenue records, grammar or architectural drawings. Thus musical chants are the most precise description among the four options.

The Yajurveda contains sacrificial formulas and instructions used by priests during Vedic rituals. It explains how offerings and ritual actions were to be performed, although Vedic texts can contain wider material as well. Astronomy, drama and cave painting are not its defining subjects, so A is correct.

The Atharvaveda includes charms, prayers and formulas connected with health, healing, protection, household concerns and everyday life. It therefore provides a different view of Vedic culture from texts focused mainly on formal sacrificial praise. City tax lists, sea maps and dynasty tables do not describe its principal contents.

The Chandogya Upanishad and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad are among the major early Upanishadic texts. They discuss philosophical questions concerning the self, ultimate reality, knowledge and the meaning of ritual. They are not Puranas, epics or Jataka stories, which belong to different literary and religious traditions. Hence, option A is the correct classification.

The Upanishads explore philosophical questions about the self or atman, Brahman, knowledge, reality and liberation. Their discussions often use dialogues and reflection rather than practical manuals about coins, warfare or sanitation. Therefore reflection on the self and ultimate reality captures their central concern.

Jataka literature contains stories about the Buddha’s previous births, often presenting him as a human or animal character who demonstrates a moral quality. These narratives teach ethical lessons and belong to Buddhist literary tradition. They are not administrative tax records, Indus seals or accounts of the Chola navy.

The Arthashastra is a treatise concerned with statecraft, administration, political strategy, revenue, law, economy and the maintenance of power. It is traditionally associated with Kautilya. Although the text contains varied material, its central subject is governance, not love poetry, cave painting or musical composition.

Ashoka’s rock edicts are inscriptions produced during or close to his reign, so they provide direct evidence about royal messages, administration and Dhamma. They must still be interpreted critically because official records present the ruler’s viewpoint. Even with that limitation, they are contemporary inscriptional evidence, not novels, folk songs or fiction.

The Prayag Prashasti, composed by the court poet Harishena and engraved on the Allahabad pillar, describes the achievements and campaigns of Samudragupta. It records his relations with different rulers and regions, though it naturally presents a royal point of view. The inscription is therefore associated chiefly with Samudragupta, not the other Gupta rulers.

Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent were written in Brahmi script, generally in Prakrit language. A few north-western inscriptions used Kharosthi, and some frontier inscriptions used other languages or scripts. Devanagari, Roman and Gurmukhi developed or became prominent much later in different contexts.

Kharosthi was used for some Ashokan inscriptions in the north-western part of the subcontinent, where cultural and administrative contacts with regions west of India were strong. It was written from right to left. Tamil, Bengali and Odia scripts belong to different regional and later linguistic contexts.

Ashoka communicated principles of Dhamma through rock edicts and pillar edicts placed in visible public locations across his empire. These inscriptions discussed ethical conduct, respect, welfare and restraint. Newspapers, radio and modern paper posters did not exist as the communication technologies described in the Mauryan period.

The Prayag Prashasti is an inscriptional source, traditionally associated with Harishena and composed in praise of the Gupta ruler Samudragupta. It records the ruler’s achievements and provides historical information, although its praise-filled language requires careful interpretation. Therefore, option A is correct. An oral folk song, modern novel and sea map belong to different source categories and do not describe this inscription.

The Arthashastra is a major text associated with statecraft and discusses administration, officials, security, intelligence gathering, and the conduct of rulers. Its exact date and authorship are debated, so it should not be treated as a simple day-by-day Mauryan record, but it is the appropriate option for the question. Ashtadhyayi is mainly a grammatical work, while Meghaduta is poetry.

Harappan seals are physical objects recovered from archaeological contexts, so they are archaeological or material sources. Their animal images, signs, and use marks can provide clues about symbols, craft production, exchange, and beliefs, although their exact meanings are uncertain because the script remains undeciphered. They are not oral rumours, modern sources, or newspapers. Classification depends on how the evidence survives and is studied.

The Prayag Prashasti, composed by Harishena and inscribed on the Allahabad pillar, praises Samudragupta and describes his campaigns, relationships with different rulers, and royal qualities. It is an important Gupta-period political inscription, though as a praise text it naturally presents the ruler favourably and should be read critically. Ashoka, Rajaraja I, and Bimbisara belong to different contexts and are not the ruler celebrated in this inscription.

In the Vedic tradition, a Samhita is the collected text of sacred verses, hymns or mantras belonging to a Veda. The Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Veda each have Samhita portions, although their contents and arrangement differ. The word is therefore connected with the compilation of ritual and religious verses, not with coins, fortifications or taxation. Thus, option A gives the correct meaning in this context.

The Prayag Prashasti is an inscription composed in praise of Samudragupta and associated with the Allahabad pillar. As an inscription, it provides information about the ruler's achievements and political relations, though its panegyric purpose means it must be read critically. Option A is correct; the other choices identify different kinds of evidence.

Copper plates were durable records often used to document grants, especially gifts of land to individuals or religious institutions. They may also mention boundaries, rights, privileges, officials and the issuing ruler. Therefore, they are especially useful for studying landholding and administration, not weather, dance or food lists.