Harappan archaeology

Researchers have identified approximately four hundred distinct signs or sign forms in the Harappan script, although the exact count can vary depending on whether variants are treated as separate signs. Option B is therefore the accepted approximate answer. Forty is too small, while four thousand and forty thousand greatly exaggerate the known sign inventory. The script remains undeciphered despite this substantial but limited range.

Some scholars interpret terracotta female figurines as possible representations connected with fertility, motherhood or a mother-goddess tradition. This interpretation is based on appearance and archaeological context, not on a deciphered Harappan religious text, so it cannot be treated as certain. Option D is therefore correct. Military training, trade taxation and city administration do not explain the common scholarly association.

The governing archaeological evidence is the design of the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro. A large rectangular tank was approached by stairways descending from both the northern and southern sides. This arrangement allowed people to enter and leave the tank in an orderly way. Therefore, option A is correct. A rope or wooden ladder is not part of the excavated architectural plan, and option D ignores the clearly identified entrances.

Cemetery R-37 is a well-known burial area associated with the Harappa site in Punjab. Archaeologists found human burials there along with pottery and other grave objects, making it important evidence for studying Harappan mortuary practices. Thus option B is correct. Mohenjodaro, Lothal, and Dholavira are major Harappan sites, but Cemetery R-37 is not the cemetery designation used for them.

The governing concept is economic surplus. Surplus production means that output exceeds the producers’ immediate consumption needs; the additional grain or goods can be stored, exchanged, redistributed or used to support specialists such as artisans and administrators. Option A describes a shortage, while C concerns imports and D concerns land abandonment, neither of which defines surplus. Therefore, option B is correct.

Archaeology is the systematic study and interpretation of past human life through material remains. These include buildings, streets, pottery, tools, ornaments, bones, food traces, burials, seals, and production debris. Because the Harappan script remains undeciphered, such evidence is especially important for reconstructing settlements, technology, economy, and social life. Option A is correct; the other choices restrict the field to poetry, modern buildings, or royal genealogies, none of which defines archaeology.

The governing fact concerns the institutional history of Indian archaeology. Alexander Cunningham became the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India, established in 1861 to survey, document and conserve ancient monuments and sites. Therefore option C is correct. The National Museum was founded much later, the Indian History Congress is an academic organisation rather than a survey department, and the Reserve Bank deals with monetary policy.

The relevant archaeological evidence is a seal from Harappa that Cunningham noticed during his work. He did not yet understand that it belonged to a civilisation much older than the periods he was familiar with. Thus option D is correct. The Bronze Dancing Girl is associated with Mohenjodaro, the Great Bath is a structure rather than a small object, and the stone reservoir is not the object described in this account.

The naming principle is based on the location of important early discoveries. Several major Harappan sites were identified in the Indus River basin and nearby regions, so scholars used the name Indus Valley civilisation. Option A is correct. The civilisation was not confined to the sea, its people lived in settled communities rather than only on boats, and the Ganga basin was not its defining core.

Historical chronology divides the civilisation into broad developmental phases. The period before the fully urban Mature Harappan stage is called the Early Harappan phase, making option B correct. During it, regional settlements and cultural traditions developed toward later urbanisation. The Late Harappan phase followed the mature stage, while the Mauryan and Gupta phases belong to much later periods of Indian history.

Archaeological evidence indicates a transformation rather than a complete disappearance of Harappan culture during the Late Harappan phase. Many large urban centres declined in importance, while smaller and more regional settlements became prominent. Thus option D is correct. It is inaccurate to say that every city expanded, writing became more extensive, or huge palaces appeared; those claims do not describe the general pattern.

In urban planning, a grid pattern means that streets were laid out in a regular network and generally intersected at, or close to, right angles. This arrangement divided the settlement into organised blocks and supported movement and drainage planning. Therefore option A is correct. Circular-only streets, streets inside rivers and the absence of streets do not describe the Harappan layout.

The Great Bath was a carefully constructed, waterproof brick-lined tank at Mohenjodaro. It had steps leading down into the tank and arrangements for filling and draining water, showing deliberate architectural planning. Option C is correct. It was not identified as a grain-grinding area, military ground or animal enclosure. Its precise social or ritual purpose remains uncertain, so “public bathing tank” is the safest description.

The governing idea is that repeated uniform measurements are archaeological evidence of shared standards. Harappan bricks commonly followed consistent proportions, suggesting that brick makers and builders worked according to accepted rules and that materials could be organised across settlements. Therefore, option A is correct. The pattern does not show ignorance, isolated production, or dependence on iron; those choices contradict the construction evidence.

The governing concept is the archaeological study of building materials and their uses. Mud bricks were practical materials for walls, raised platforms and other structural parts of Harappan settlements. Thus option B is correct. Ornaments, seals and weights were made from different materials and were not the main purpose of mud bricks, so options A, C and D are implausible.

The governing concept is the interpretation of archaeological remains, especially undeciphered writing. Near a gateway at Dholavira, excavators found a large signboard bearing oversized Harappan signs, probably intended to be visible in a public or important entrance area. Therefore option B is correct. It was not an Ashokan or Arabic inscription, and the evidence does not describe a battle scene.

The governing concept is using physical traces to reconstruct agricultural practice. At Kalibangan, intersecting furrow marks in a field indicate that land was deliberately ploughed in an organised pattern, possibly allowing different crops to be grown in separate furrows. Hence option A is correct. The marks are not evidence of maritime trade, metal casting or writing, which require different artefacts and contexts.

The governing concept is cautious inference from archaeological tools and agricultural activity. Sickle-like implements made of stone or metal could cut standing crops, so option B is the most suitable answer. The word “probably” matters because direct written descriptions are unavailable and tools may have had multiple uses. Statues, seals and weights served symbolic, administrative or measuring purposes, not harvesting.

The governing concept is the use of animals in early agriculture. Bulls were strong draft animals and were probably used to pull ploughs and carts, helping people prepare fields and move materials. Therefore, option C is correct. Writing scripts, making seals, and shaping beads were human craft or administrative activities, not agricultural roles performed by bulls.

The governing concept is the classification of archaeological specialisations. Archaeobotany studies ancient plant remains, including seeds, grains, wood, and pollen, to reconstruct farming, food habits, and environments. Therefore, option A is correct. Numismatics studies coins, epigraphy studies inscriptions, and astronomy studies celestial objects rather than plant remains.

The governing concept is animal husbandry and the use of domesticated animals in everyday life. Sheep and goats could provide meat and milk, while sheep also supplied wool and goats provided other useful materials. Therefore, option C is the best answer. Warfare, construction, and writing do not explain why these animals were commonly reared.

The governing concept is controlled heat treatment in Harappan bead production. Carnelian was heated so that its natural red colour became stronger and brighter before the bead was finished and polished. Therefore, option C is correct. Keeping the stone in water, covering it with soil, or dipping it in silver does not explain the characteristic colour enhancement described here.

The governing chronological concept is that the Harappan civilisation is generally associated with the Bronze Age, when copper and bronze were the principal metals used for tools and objects. Iron was not in common use in Harappan contexts. Thus option D is correct. The other statements incorrectly make iron the material of houses, major trade or huge weapons without supporting evidence.

The governing concept is archaeological evidence: the study of surviving material traces from the past. Archaeologists examine buildings, streets, pottery, tools, ornaments, seals, bones, and other remains to reconstruct Harappan life. Option A is correct because these objects can be excavated, recorded, compared, and interpreted. Folktales and modern news are not primary Harappan remains, and the civilisation’s limited script means literature alone cannot explain it.

The governing concept is historical chronology. The Mature Harappan phase is generally placed around 2600–1900 BCE, when urban settlements, planned construction, craft production, exchange networks, and distinctive material culture flourished. Therefore option B is correct. The other periods belong either to much earlier developments or to later historical contexts and do not represent the standard Mature Harappan date range.