excavation methods

Broken pieces of pottery are called pottery sherds, or potsherds. Archaeologists record their material, shape, surface treatment, decoration, and archaeological layer because these details can help identify technological traditions and relative periods. Option A is correct. Inscriptions are written records, fossils are preserved remains of organisms, and pillars are architectural elements, so none of those terms describes broken pottery.

Relative dating establishes the order of objects, features, or archaeological layers: one may be earlier, later, or contemporary in relation to another. It is based on evidence such as stratigraphy and typological comparison, not necessarily on a precise numerical year. Option A is correct; price, modern ownership, and colour are not chronological conclusions.

Absolute dating aims to estimate the age of an archaeological remain in numerical terms, usually with a margin of error or a date range. Methods such as radiocarbon dating measure scientific properties of suitable samples. Option A is correct, although the result is an estimate rather than perfect certainty. Layer colour, renaming an object, and cleaning a site do not determine its age.

Conservation is the planned process of stabilising, protecting, and sometimes treating archaeological objects so that deterioration is slowed and information is retained. Methods vary according to material: wood, metal, pottery, and bone each require different handling. Option A is correct; production creates objects, transportation moves them, and irrigation supplies water rather than preserving artefacts.

Archaeological recording requires every object to retain its provenience and identity after removal from the ground. A descriptive label can record the site, trench or square, layer, date and catalogue number, so option A is correct. A price list, advertisement or religious chant supplies no archaeological context and cannot support later analysis.

Laboratory study applies scientific methods to archaeological material. Specialists may identify its composition, estimate age, detect traces of use, examine residues and assess deterioration before conservation. Thus option A is correct. Selling, reburying or erasing an object's name is not the purpose of laboratory analysis and would destroy valuable evidence.

Soil is an archaeological archive containing microscopic and organic traces. Carefully collected samples can reveal charred seeds, pollen, phytoliths and other environmental evidence, helping reconstruct crops, vegetation and past conditions. Option A is therefore correct. Selling soil, building a wall or levelling the site does not explain systematic sampling.

Flotation uses the difference in density between soil, water and organic remains. When a soil sample is agitated in water, light charred seeds and plant fragments float and can be collected, while heavier sediment sinks. Therefore option A is correct; fortification, painting and transport are unrelated archaeological activities.

The governing concept is archaeological publication: after excavation, researchers prepare a report containing the methods used, layers examined, objects found, drawings, photographs, interpretations, and conclusions. Making this record public allows other scholars to check the evidence, compare it with other sites, and develop new interpretations. Irrigation, sealing, and mining are activities or processes unrelated to communicating excavation results, so option A is correct.

Maps and drawings are forms of archaeological documentation. A map shows where structures, layers, and objects occurred in relation to one another, while a drawing can record shape, measurements, and construction details. This spatial and visual evidence makes the written report clearer and helps later researchers interpret the site accurately. Increasing weight, renaming a site, or selling objects is not the purpose, so option A is correct.

The governing archaeological principle is that excavation permanently changes the deposit. When a soil layer is removed, its original position and relationship with nearby layers cannot be recreated exactly, even if objects are preserved. For this reason, archaeologists measure, photograph, draw, label, and record each context before removing it. Objects do not always break, the entire site is not instantly destroyed, and soil does not burn; option A is correct.

Careful, controlled excavation is essential because archaeological meaning depends on both objects and their contexts. Rushing can break fragile remains, mix soil from different layers, overlook small evidence, and prevent accurate recording of location and associations. It cannot make a site older, improve soil fertility, or turn old objects into new ones. Therefore the realistic archaeological harm described in option A is correct.

Sample excavation applies the principle of selective investigation. Archaeologists examine carefully chosen areas that can reveal the site's chronology, layout, activities, and types of remains without removing every deposit. This saves time and resources, reduces damage, and leaves much of the site available for conservation or future research. Hiding the site, destroying objects, or merely collecting soil is not the purpose; option A is correct.

The governing principle is archaeological preservation for future research. Because excavation is destructive, an untouched area remains a valuable archive that later researchers can study with improved dating, imaging, sampling, conservation, or other less invasive techniques. New methods may answer questions that current tools cannot. Soil prices, modernization, or remains rising to the surface are unrelated claims, so option A is correct.

The central principle of excavation is that evidence must be removed carefully while its context is recorded completely. Archaeologists document layers, positions, measurements, photographs, samples, and associations before and during removal. This preserves information even though the deposit itself is changed. Speed, collecting only attractive objects, or removing all layers together would destroy context and bias the evidence. Therefore option A is correct.

The governing principle is conservation during excavation: the closer a tool is to a fragile artefact, the more gentle and controllable it should be. A soft brush loosens and removes fine soil without striking or scraping the object. Option A is correct. A hammer, bulldozer and axe apply excessive force and could break or scratch the artefact and disturb its context.

The governing concept is archaeological field survey. Before excavation, researchers systematically inspect the landscape, record visible structures, collect or note surface materials, and use maps or other observations to identify possible sites and estimate their extent. Metal smelting, irrigation, and diverting a river are activities that may alter a landscape, not standard methods for initially locating an archaeological site. Therefore option A is correct.

The governing concept is surface evidence in field survey. Pottery fragments made or used by people can indicate that human activity once occurred in the area, possibly marking a settlement, workshop, or other occupation. Their quantity, distribution, and type may help estimate the site’s extent and date, but they require careful study and do not prove every detail alone. Thus option A is the best answer; the other choices are unrelated.

The governing concept is spatial control in archaeological excavation. A baseline is a fixed, measured line from which distances and positions can be recorded consistently. By using it, excavators can plot walls, pits, layers, and artefacts accurately on a plan. Therefore, option A is correct; washing objects, drying soil, or renaming a site has no role in establishing measurement coordinates.

The governing concept is provenience, meaning the precise place where an archaeological find was discovered. Numbering each grid square allows every bead, bone, brick, or tool to be linked to its horizontal position and excavation record. Thus option A is correct. A grid number does not assign a market price, alter soil colour, or decorate the area.

Stratigraphy studies the layered deposits formed at different times or by different activities. Removing each layer separately preserves its position and associated finds, allowing archaeologists to reconstruct sequence and context. Therefore option A is correct. The method is not intended to make work difficult, increase soil weight, or conceal objects; careful separation improves evidence rather than obscuring it.

The governing principle is the law of superposition: in an undisturbed sequence, deposits laid down later remain above deposits formed earlier. Hence an upper layer is generally newer than the lower layer, making option A correct. This does not mean every layer is natural or unoccupied, and disturbance, erosion, or later digging can reverse or complicate the expected order.

A soil profile is a vertical view or section through the deposit. It records differences in the sequence, colour, texture, composition, and thickness of soil layers, helping archaeologists interpret stratigraphy and past activity. Thus option A is correct. A profile is not a record of the site’s name, object prices, or modern roads, although later disturbances may also appear in it.

In archaeological recording, a section is a clean vertical face that exposes the deposits from the side. It allows the excavator to observe and document layer boundaries, thickness, colour, and relationships between deposits. Therefore option A is correct. A warehouse, citadel, and courtyard are buildings or spaces, not technical names for an exposed excavation profile.

Layer thickness is part of stratigraphic recording. When considered with soil type, boundaries, artefacts, and other evidence, it can indicate the scale, duration, or repeated nature of deposition and activity. Thus option A is correct. Thickness is not measured to determine soil price, colour the site, or sharpen tools; those choices do not interpret archaeological deposits.